“C” is for Cookie

September 2001

By Lisa Kobs
Contributing Editor

Developing cookies may be either a highly pleasurable, or extremely frustrating experience. As anyone who knows food chemistry understands, a formula’s ingredient interactions are extremely complex and many paths often lead to the target end product. Not only can a single ingredient change dramatically alter the finished cookie, new changes may negate previous changes.

Remind you of a dog chasing its tail? While often maddening, the complex nature of cookie chemistry also allows the formulator an extreme degree of control. Developers can create products with subtle textural nuances that could not have been achieved even a decade ago. Understanding the functionality of these ingredients and the reactions they undergo throughout the manufacturing process are the key to cookie success.

Flour power
While all ingredients in the cookie’s formulation are important, the flour plays a particularly critical role in that it provides the foundation upon which the other ingredients will build. With the variety of flour choices available, selecting the right flour can be a daunting task. It is this very quality, however, that gives food technologists a high degeree of control over the result.

Many researchers emphasize protein quality when determining which flour may be suitable for a particular application, but it does not tell the whole story. The flour used in cookie making is typically pastry flour, a blend of soft red and soft white wheats.

“Understanding the difference between soft red and white wheat in milling and cookie baking is the No. 1 key for a formulator,” explains Bob Fesler, technical services, Western region, Cargill Foods, Flour Milling Division, Ogden, UT. “Soft red and soft white wheat are different.”

Fesler adds that wheat grown in different regions of the United States will have different milling qualities and analytical (protein, moisture, ash, absorption) qualities. “Around 200 different varieties of soft red wheat are grown and red wheat from Texas is different than red wheat from Ohio. Soft white wheat features 20 varieties and comes mostly from the Pacific Northwest. They are not interchangeable,” he says. “Soft red flour is naturally lower in ash and protein content with about 2% less water absorption.”

After wheat variety, product designers usually consider protein quality when working with bread and other yeast-raised bakery foods because proper gluten development is critical for these products. In cookies, however, this usually is not of prime significance as gluten development actually is undesirable in most cases.

“Protein quality refers to the suitability of the flour proteins for an intended use,” explains Harold Ward, manager, technical services, ConAgra Foods, Grain Processing, Omaha, NE. “Unfortunately, there is not an industry standard for determination of gluten quality as it applies to cookie formulation and production. Typically in cookies, gluten development, as we think of it in a bread-type system, does not take place. A developed gluten network for gas retention is not needed. If the gluten matrix was developed, it may result in a tougher cookie with decreased spread.”

Next, the cookie creator needs to look at physical characteristics, such as moisture content, granulation and ash. For cookies, Fesler recommends that the flour’s moisture content should be between 12% and 14% in order to provide proper water absorption. A flour’s absorption properties will affect dough development, cookie spread, moisture retention and finished-product eating quality.

“As the moisture content of the flour increases, the ability of the flour to absorb formula water decreases,” adds Ward. “If flour moisture changes significantly and the level of formula water is not adjusted, the spread of the cookie could be impacted along with the overall bake and final product moisture content.”

Ash — composed of residual bran pieces — is the mineral content of flour and serves as an indication of the flour’s grade and/or milling quality. The standard ash for pastry flour should be in the range of 0.45% to 0.55%.

“Ash contains high percentages of pentosans, which have high water absorbing qualities,” says Fesler. “The soluble pentosan content is higher in soft white wheat than in soft red wheat.”

Ash content varies with the grade of flour which, in turn, depends on when the flour is obtained during milling. Patent flour is the “cut” of flour from the front of the mill and is considered very high quality. Clear flour is the portion of flour remaining after the patent flour has been taken off. Clear flour is further categorized as “first clear” and “second clear.” Straight flour is all of the flour extracted from a blend of wheat. A bag of pastry flour may be a blend of various ratios of all of these flours.

“The differences in flour from patent to straight grade to clear flours are related to the level of bran and protein quantity/quality in the flour,” says Ward. “Patent flour has the least bran and protein content, while second clear flour has the greatest bran and protein content. Different grades of flour will perform differently in a cookie formula. For instance, if one were switching from patent flour to clear flour in a cookie formula, I would expect to see a drastic decrease in spread, a much tighter top surface grain, and a general decrease in the overall cookie quality.”

Milling also influences the number of damaged starch granules found in the flour. If the granules are mechanically scarified or crushed, the resulting damaged starch can absorb water from the other ingredients present. This affects the spread of the final product — a decrease in cookie spread occurs as the degree of damaged starch increases.

After milling, flour may undergo additional treatments that can affect performance including bleaching and maturing. Flour will whiten and mature naturally due to oxidation, which changes its appearance and handling properties. Aging this way is time-consuming. To speed it up, bleaching often is done with benzoyl peroxide, which only whitens the flour and has little effect on its baking performance. Bleaching with chlorine gas not only whitens flour, but functions as a maturing agent. Chlorine modifies the starch and protein permitting increased starch swelling and hydration while also weakening the gluten structure.
Ideally, flour should be subjected to a bake test to judge performance, such as the AACC 1050D sugar snap cookie bake test. With this test, the flatter the cookie, the better the cookie flour.

“Selection criteria for flour should be based primarily on the end-product characteristics you are trying to achieve,” says Ward. “In choosing flour, some knowledge of the process and ingredient functions is very important.”

If at all possible, Ward also recommends undertaking trial run of the flour being considered to determine if it is suitable. “In my opinion, it is very important that the miller and the baker work together on flour selection,” he says.

Sweet as sugar
Because up to 25% of a cookie formula can be sweetening ingredients, the selection of a sweetening system becomes extremely important from a functionality and cost standpoint. Sweeteners are based on carbohydrates. How a particular carbohydrate affects a formula is directly related to its chemical composition, physiochemical properties and its physical form. Chemically, they can be mono- or disaccharides or compound sugars such as oligosaccharides or dextrins. Physiochemical properties include sweetness, texture, solubility, mouthfeel, humectancy and flavor. Physically, sweeteners can be solids, in various granulations or liquids.

Sucrose, used either alone or in combination with other complementary sweetening ingredients, is the most common cookie sweetener. It is used primarily in the granulated form, but particle size can vary which may directly affect the finished cookies. For example, as the sucrose content increases, it acts as a hardening agent, creating a crisp, firm texture.

“Granulation affects creaming, spreading of the cookies during baking and surface texture of the cookies,” says Brian Strouts, head of experimental baking at the American Institute of Baking in Manhattan, KS. “As cookies are baked, undissolved sugar melts and the dough spreads on the cookie’s baking surface.”

Coarse forms of granulated sugar dissolve less readily than fine granulations. Consequently, says Strouts, a coarser granulation of sugar results in less spreading of the dough and more surface cracking of the baked cookie. Surface cracking results from the recrystallization of the sugar at the surface of the cookie.

Remember, though, that sugar is just one of many ingredients that influences cookie spread.

“During the initial creaming mixing stage, sucrose particles are coated with a layer of fat,” explains Strouts. “When the cookie dough piece warms in the oven, the fat layer melts away allowing the water to migrate to the sugar and go into solution. As the sugar changes from solid to liquid, it causes the cookie to flow or spread.”

Brown sugar contributes both flavor and sweetness. Made by blending white sugar with different levels of molasses, it ranges in color and flavor from light to very dark. Its effects on crust and crumb color are related to the darkness of the sugar — the more molasses, the darker the color. It also has softening capabilities due to its solubility and the presence of the molasses, which contains reducing sugars.
Crystalline fructose is another sweetener that may be used. It has sweetness synergy with other sweeteners, including sucrose, that may allow cost savings. Because it is a reducing sugar it can contribute too much color development if not used wisely.

Molasses is the concentrated juice extracted from sugar-bearing plants. It comes in a wide range of flavors, colors, sugar solids and consistencies. Its main function in cookies is flavor, but molasses also adds humectency due to the presence of reducing sugars dextrose and fructose. Its natural acids may react with the leavening system when combined with sodium bicarbonate and also affect the spread.

Honey varies widely in flavor and color based on the nectar source. Composed mostly of invert sugars, it acts as a humectant. Its reducing sugars promote browning and increase spread. To lower cost, it often is found in blends with high-fructose corn syrup and invert sugar syrups, which can be used as a replacement when combined with honey flavors.

Corn sweeteners are an economical sweetening choice. Less sweet than sucrose, corn syrups provide the functionality of a sweetener without making the product excessively sweet. Corn syrup also will influence dough viscosity, cookie texture and finished color.

“In many cases, cookies can be made with only corn-based sweeteners, however, it would not be possible in cookies where surface cracking is desirable,” explains Doris Dougherty, senior food scientist, A.E. Staley Manufacturing Company, Decatur, IL. “It becomes necessary, however, to understand the effect of sweeteners on starch gelatinization.

“Only a small percentage of the flour starch gelatinizes in most cookies, so the cookie remains flat and not cake-like,” Dougherty continues. “Given that sucrose will increase the starch gelatinization temperature more than glucose or fructose, it is possible to obtain excessive flour starch gelatinization by the addition of corn sweeteners. If that is the case, where cookie height increases, spread decreases and the internal texture changes, then the water level should be decreased to rebalance the formula.”

The effects of corn syrup will vary based on the type of syrup used. Corn syrup is differentiated by its dextrose equivalent (DE), which is a measure of the degree of starch hydrolysis. The higher the DE the more completely the starch is hydrolyzed. Dextrose is 100 DE, or cornstarch that has been completely hydrolyzed. The syrup’s characteristics, such as sweetness, humectancy, and viscosity, depend upon the DE. The DE alone, however, will not tell the complete story. With the varied processing techniques, such as acid conversion, enzyme conversion and absorption technology, the DE cannot be solely used for selection criteria. A high-maltose corn syrup, for example, may have a DE of 48, but will have a functional performance that is very different from that of a 48 DE acid-converted corn syrup.

Corn syrup is available as solids, but this is not the best form to use for cookies. “Replacing solid sweeteners with an equivalent amount of liquid sweeteners, even on a dry solids basis, may not produce the right dough characteristics,” explains Dougherty. “Water is limited in cookie systems and as a result, dissolving the sweetener solids in water will extend the amount of liquids in the system, making doughs stickier.”

When selecting corn sweeteners, bear in mind that sucrose is not a reducing sugar and, therefore, does not contribute to browning. Adding corn sweeteners adds fructose and dextrose (both reducing sugars) to the formula, which will contribute to browning.

Implementing fat functionality
Fat plays several critical roles in cookie formulation including lubrication, aeration, eating quality and spread. Lubrication is a function of the fat’s oil fraction. The liquid oil coats the flour and sugar particles allowing for a smoother dough, easier mixing, reduced mixing times and some mixing tolerance. This coating also prevents excess gluten development and the oil’s lubrication properties help keep the dough from sticking to baking surfaces.

Aeration involves the addition of air into the dough. Proper aeration is a function of the solid-fat crystals in the shortening and requires that they be of the right type, size and shape.

During the creaming stage of mixing, the solid portion of shortening entraps air bubbles and incorporates large quantities of air. This entrapped air is dispersed throughout the dough facilitating the even distribution of leavening gases and water vapor released during baking. This results in an increase in volume and fine, even crumb structure in the finished cookie. Uniform aeration and even dough density also are critical to batch consistency and proper depositing.

Because fat effects a cookie’s eating quality, it is important to define the targeted organoleptic characteristics in the beginning of the development process. Whether a cookie is soft and chewy, or short and crisp will be affected by proper fat selection based on its chemistry. In general, higher percentages of fat produce a more tender cookie. All fats will contribute richness, flavor, moist mouthfeel and some degree of softness in the cookie. This is partially due to cookies’ lower moisture levels that make them dependent on fat for tenderness and mouthfeel. Prevention of gluten development also promotes these eating qualities.
Both the type and quantity of fat in the formula influence spread. In general, increased fat levels tend to increase spread.

The properties that determine fat and oil functionality in cookies include the ratio of solid to liquid phase and the plasticity of a solid shortening — a physical property describing how soft and pliable a fat is at a given temperature. Fatty-acid composition, chain length and physical orientation alter the fat’s behavior, such as its physical state as a liquid or solid. The fat’s source also is an important consideration, as fats from animal or vegetable sources differ in fatty-acid composition. Also important are the processing conditions used during chilling and tempering, which control crystal formation and, ultimately, the fats handling characteristics.

Hydrogenated vegetable shortening is the most common fat source in cookie manufacturing, usually soybean, cottonseed, corn or palm oil. Shortenings may be made from a single fat, but they often feature a blend of two fat sources to obtain performance characteristics from each. Manipulating the degree of hydrogenation can obtain additional functionality. Commercial vegetable shortenings are further modified by the addition of processing aids to improve storage and handling capabilities and the addition of emulsifiers to alter functional behavior.

While no fat has been able to match dairy butter for its unique flavor and richness, butter is not always the best choice for cookies from a functional standpoint. Butter’s aeration properties are not as high as those of vegetable shortening, resulting in a product with less volume and a poorer texture. Baker’s margarine is another option. A water-in-oil emulsion with a higher melting point and waxier texture compared with table margarine, it can simulate the flavor of butter at a lower cost. Lard, hydrogenated lard and molecular-modified lard also are options for the formulator, but have reduced consumer acceptance based on health implications. Often the ideal solution is a combination of shortening and butter and other fat sources to maximize functionality without compromising flavor.

A source of fat in cookies that often goes unconsidered is the naturally occurring lipid in the wheat endosperm. Flour contains both free and bound lipids that can affect the product. Cookies made with defatted flour perform differently from cookies made using untreated flour. While these differences may not be of great concern, this lipid reaction may influence flour selection and quality criteria when sourcing or making substitutions.

Cookies may contain either a solid or a liquid fat. Oil, liquid shortening or melted plastic shortening can replace plastic shortening if lubrication and eating quality are the only functions desired from the fat. If the finished-dough temperature is above the melting point of a plastic shortening, melting the shortening may be an efficient, feasible practice. Liquid fat, however, does not aerate as well as plastic fat, so if aeration is critical to finished-product quality, a liquid ingredient is not the best selection.

If fat plays more of a key role in the cookie’s structure, ensure that the formula contains the proper amount of solid fat in the proper crystal state. In addition, use the fat in its solid form because the melted plastic fat will not offer the same performance. (For more information, see “Fat Facts for Cookies and Crackers” in the August 1996 issue of Food Product Design.)

Structure from the shell
Aeration and structure are not the exclusive responsibility of flour and fat in cookies. Eggs, too, provide these key properties. “The multifunctional properties of eggs are hard to mimic with egg substitutes,” says Glenn W. Froning, Ph.D., professor emeritus, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, and consultant to the American Egg Board, Park Ridge, IL.

According to Froning, egg white proteins, such as ovalbumin, globulins and ovamucin, contribute to the aeration properties. Globulins do this by increasing the viscosity and lowering the surface tension during whipping. Ovomucin provides an insoluble film around the air bubbles to stabilize the foam. Ovalbumin coagulates during baking to strengthen the structure. “The yolk protein lipovitellanin is also a good structural agent,” he says.

Whole egg, albumin and yolk can be purchased in a variety of forms, including fresh, frozen and dried. However, remember that the manufacturing process can change the functionality and, ultimately, the egg’s performance in a finished cookie. A critical mistake is to approve an egg ingredient based on specifications alone without ever confirming performance in bake tests.

“Differences in functionality may be due to such aspects as total solids, formulation and processing parameters,” explains Froning. “For example, eggs are sensitive to pasteurization temperatures. Therefore, times and temperatures must be carefully controlled.”

Froning adds that freezing generally does not adversely affect functional properties. However, frozen eggs have sugar or salt added to prevent gelation which many alter the performance. “Whole eggs may lose some foaming properties during drying due to breakdown of finely emulsified fat globules into coalesced free fat,” he says. “Adding carbohydrates such as sugar or corn syrup solids will prevent loss of foaming properties during drying.”

Although product designers can find many standard options, suppliers generally can tailor an egg ingredient to a specific functionality. Fortified whole egg, for example, features yolk added to whole eggs. The resulting higher solids content may improve emulsification properties.

Rising to the vocation
Cookies are leavened chemically using the carbon dioxide generated when food acids react with bicarbonate-based leavening ingredients. In the oven, heat not only assists this reaction, but also transforms the formula water into steam that also contributes lift.

The entrapped air incorporated during the creaming phase forms many small bubbles that serve as nuclei for leavening gases and steam. The released CO2 and steam pressure expands the gas bubbles thus expanding the dough. The smaller the air nuclei formed during mixing, the more fine and close the texture of the cookie. This enhances eating quality. To encourage small-bubble formation, the product designer also may add an emulsifier.

Added alone or as a component of baking powder, sodium bicarbonate typically is the leavening ingredient of choice. It comes in a variety of granulations, which helps to control how quickly it will dissolve, and thus begin reacting. Ammonium bicarbonate is another leavening option, but should only be used in products with low finished-moisture content. Cookies with a finished-moisture level greater than 5% will retain some of the ammonia and its characteristic smell and bitter taste will become detectable. Ammonium bicarbonate can act as a supplementary leavening agent. Potassium bicarbonate is available for lower-sodium products, however more is needed as compared with sodium bicarbonate to obtain the same effect.

Many cookie ingredients, such as flour, sugar syrups and fruits, are slightly acidic, giving cookie dough enough acidity to neutralize the baking soda. Additional ingredients can contribute additional acidity, if more is required.

“Baking powder is a balanced reaction and always a safe leavening system,” says Strouts. A blend of baking soda, leavening acids and fillers, it provides more controlled leavening throughout the baking process. For more precise leavening, the supplier can tailor a system to suit the particular product and process by selecting the proper leavening acids.

Leavening acids include monocalcium phosphate (MCP), sodium aluminum sulfate (SAS), anhydrous monocalcium phosphate (MCP-Anh), sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP), dimagnesium phosphate (DMgP) and dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCP). Each acid has specific neutralizing and equivalence values that determine the quantity needed. Acids react with the bicarbonate source at different rates and temperatures based on their solubility. A slow acid will be insoluble at room temperature, thus preventing available hydrogen ions for reaction. A fast-acting leavener will begin to function during mixing and depositing before ever encountering the oven’s heat.

The ingredient manufacturer can further manipulate their reaction rates by modifying the leavening agents. The leavening reaction can be controlled by selecting the proper ratio of fast and slow leavening acids and the finished cookie may require a balance of early and late leavening reactions to obtain optimal organoleptic characteristics. (For more information, see “Leavening Systems: Making Products Rise and Shine” in the March 1995 issue of Food Product Design.)

In addition to volume increase, leavening ingredients affect cookies in additional ways. They can modify dough alkalinity weakening the flour proteins and promoting spreading. Dough alkalinity also influences flavor. “Some cookies, such as chocolate chip, are characterized by an excess of unreacted soda that raises the cookie pH and changes the flavor,” explains Strouts.

The alkalinity of the baking soda also lowers the carmelization point of sugar in the dough, resulting in faster, darker color development in the crust. Chocolate cookies often obtain their characteristic deep, rich brown color by manipulating dough alkalinity to raise the pH.

More flavor
Ultimately what often makes one cookie succeed while another fails is its flavor. While flavor trends tend to ebb and flow in the food industry, the flavors in cookies have stayed pretty consistent: vanilla, butter, chocolate, nuts/peanut butter and all mixes and variations, according to Karen Penichter, manager, Dragoco Flavors, Totowa, NJ.

“Commercial flavors offer the product developer great variability in flavor profile,” adds Penichter. “They are typically used in the water soluble form in cookie formulations. Heat stability is a challenge for some flavors, as well as shelf-life stability, i.e. peanut butter flavor.”
The sweet notes of cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger and others spices traditionally have flavored these sweet treats. Today, ground spices can be used in combination with essential oils, or their flavors can come directly from the flavor house. Using flavors instead of ground spices gives the advantages of lower costs, a less variable flavor profile and possible shelf-life benefits.

The way to maximize flavor in a cookie is often limited only by imagination. The dough matrix can be enhanced with flavored sweeteners, spices, cocoas and other highly flavored ingredients, or flavor can come from added particulates in the form of chocolate drops and other candy inclusions, or fruit purees and bits. The variety of value-added particulates available today is almost mind-boggling and ranges from kid funky to adult indulgence. Fillings, crèmes, icings, coatings, crumbles and fruit pastes are just a sample of the options open to developers wanting to turn plain dough into a best-selling sensation. Flavor does not have to come from just one ingredient. A maximum flavor approach can be used throughout the entire cookie.

For example, in addition to just stirring chopped nuts into the batter, how about enhancing nut flavors with the addition of defatted nut flours or the added richness of ground butters from almonds, pecans and pistachios, and a blend of natural and artificial nut flavors? Now add a creamy nut-flavored filling and enrobe the entire thing in a nutty candy compound.

Nutritionally controlled cookies
Although all these indulgent inclusions can be delicious, many of us want to enjoy our cookies without all of the fat and calories, or just want the reassurance that we are getting a little nutrition with our fun. Therefore, the food industry has developed a wide range of specialized tools for scientists to work with.

But before selecting from all of the new technologies, the term “nutritionally controlled” needs to be defined in relation to the target market. Today’s nutritionally controlled options include fat-free, dietetic, reduced calorie, fortified, all natural and so on. The approach for each one differs and acceptance by the intended consumer for many of the specialized ingredients varies.

The past decade has witnessed the evolution in fat-replacement technologies. Many rely on carbohydrates that contain a lower caloric content than the 9 calories per gram of fat. Carbohydrates generally mimic fat by binding water, thus providing lubrication, slipperiness, body and mouthfeel. Insoluble fibers — such as powdered cellulose, cellulose gums, microcrystalline cellulose and plant fibers — gums and other hydrocolloids, modified food starches and maltodextrins are among the many ingredient options. Often, the optimum combination is found in a blend of several different carbohydrate-based systems.
Fruit-based fat replacement can be achieved by using ingredients such as dried plum puree. This functions by its combination of pectin, sorbitol and malic acid. This blend provides humectancy resulting in tenderness and texture modification along with longer shelf life.

Fat itself is now a fat-replacement option. “Benefat (the registered trademark for salatrim, which is an acronym for short-and long-chain triglyceride molecules) represents a new way of designing food products with all the characteristics of full-fat foods with less fat and calories,” explains Dana Boll, technical product manager with Danisco Cultor, New Century, KS. “Benefat is fat, but is reduced in calories and delivers only 5 Kcal per gram. In bakery applications it has the structural attributes of fat, such as tenderness, crumb structure and air-cell structure. It will not compromise flavor and is stable to oxidation and rancidity.”

Combinations of emulsifier technologies can maximize the functionality of a reduced fat formula to improve mouthfeel, as well as contribute to cell structure and tenderness.

Sweetener options are just as varied. All-natural cookies utilize sweeteners with a more healthful image, including evaporated cane juice, honey, rice syrup, malt syrup, molasses, fruit juices and concentrated fruit purees. The FDA has approved several high-intensity, non-nutritive sweeteners for use in cookies. Acesulfame potassium, or acesulfame K, is a high-intensity, non-caloric sweetener approximately 200 times sweeter than sugar that remains stable in the baking process. Another heat-stable sweetener is sucralose. Made from sucrose, with three of its hydroxyl groups replaced with chlorine, it is 600 times as sweet as sugar. The result is a 0-calorie-per-gram non-digestible sweetener.

Aspartame, a nutritive sweetener that combines the amino acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine, provides the sweet taste of sugar at a fraction of the calories. However, it degrades with the heat of baking. Encapsulated aspartame is an option, but it can still change during shelf life when the aspartame is no longer protected. Aspartame could be used to make crèmes and fruit purees for filled cookies.

Polyols, or sugar alcohols, can sweeten calorie-reduced or sugar-free cookies. They are produced by hydrogenation of selected sugars whereby the reducing aldehyde or ketone chemical function is converted into a non-reducing alcohol group.

Maltitol is the most commonly used polyol in cookies. With 3.0 calories per gram, the organoleptic and technical properties of crystalline maltitol are similar to sucrose, making it effective in baked cookies or crème fillings. Maltitol has 0.8 to 0.9 times the sweetness of sucrose and good water solubility.

Sorbitol syrup, with 0.6 times the sweetness of sucrose and 2.6 calories per gram, also can be used in both liquid and crystalline forms in cookies. Cerestar USA Inc., Hammond, IN, has introduced a polyol, called erythritol, produced from glucose by a fermentation process. With a calorie value very close to zero, it is approximately 70% as sweet as sucrose, and is an excellent ingredient for sweetening crème fillings. It currently has GRAS status in the United States.

Another strategy in fat and calorie reduction is the use of bulking agents. Ingredients such as polydextrose replace the bulk of sugar. “Reducing fat does not always mean a significant reduction in calories as the fat is often replaced with refined carbohydrates,” explains Boll. “An effective alternative is the use of the non-sweet bulking agent like Litesse® (Danisco Cultor’s brand of polydextrose) which makes it possible to produce cookies with similar qualities to full-fat products, but with reduced fat and carbohydrate contents. In cookies, it can totally replace sugar and act as a partial fat replacer, and also controls gluten formation by preferentially absorbing water, thus reducing the need for fat.” She points out that often reduced-fat cookies are oversweet because of the liberal use of sugars and fat replacers. Polydextrose is not sweet and can be used to control sweetness.”

Formulation concerns
In addition to selecting ingredients, the next step is understanding how they will work together. Ideally, this relationship should be considered before and throughout the ingredient selection phase. Every new ingredient introduced can change the formula’s balance and ultimately the finished product. Several different ingredients can result in the same change making development tricky and time-consuming. It is the savvy scientist that knows how to use these physical and chemical interactions to their advantage.

“Cookie formulas are a balancing act,” suggests Strouts. “There are many different ways to get the same characteristics. The decision on which ‘tricks’ to use is influenced by cost, convenience of use, consumer preferences, etc. The only way to see the effect is to change one ingredient at a time and study the effect.”

While the classic favorites such as chocolate chip, gingersnap and vanilla wafers have had to share shelf space with the likes of cocoa-caramel crunchy bombs, the end of cookie ingenuity is far from over. As long as we all retain that little child within us — whether he/she is a dunker or not — there will always be room for more cookies and more tips for those who design them. Next month, Food Product Design will feature an article on the processing issues food technolgists face when creating cookies.

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